Minoh Falls — Minoh, 25 April 1579

Minoh Falls
Oil on canvas, 53.0 × 41.0 cm, 2012-2022, M.Tsushima

As his territory expanded, Nobunaga would spend weeks to march his army in far-off lands facing hostile warlords. But he was not all time engaged in military affairs; while warfare dragged on, he would rather enjoy excursions and sightseeing.

Background

In 1578, a Nobunaga's vassal, Araki Murashige, who was on the military campaign against Mori Clan, rebelled against Nobunaga. It could be a heavy blow to Nobunaga; Araki could stand against Nobunaga by allying not only with Mori but also with Osaka Honganji Temple that Nobunaga had besieged for two years.. Nobunaga sought to dissuade Araki but to no avail. Nobunaga dispatched his army to besiege Araki in Arioka Castle in Settsu Province.
The castle was so strongly fortified that Nobunaga's siege army's attack on 15 January 1579 was repulsed with heavy casualties including loss of his vassal, Mammi Shigemoto. Nobunaga ordered his men to build redoubts around the Arioka Castle to reinforce the siege army and block all traffic to the castle, even of wild animals[1], then he returned to Azuchi,
The next time Nobunaga set off to command the siege army in Settsu Province was 31 March. This time, he did not try to assault the castle, instead, he had his son, Nobutada, reinforce the siege by building redoubts around the enemy castle, while he practiced falconry in nearby fields. On the way to a falconry field, on 25 April, he visited Minoh Falls, a famous waterfall in Settsu Province.

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

On the final day of March, Nobunaga visited the Minoh Falls. On the day, one of his 13 hawks had a little injury at its leg. He had a lot of great hawks, the collection is unparalleled. He did falconry every day. His passion is beyond words; people were impressed by his vigor.

Date and Venue

Ota Gyuichi's document reads that Nobunaga visited Minoh Falls on March 30, Tensho 7 (24 April,1579 on Julius Calendar). Nobunaga then was 44 years old.

He left Kyoto 25 days earlier, accompanied by his son, Nobutada, who was to conduct the construction of redoubts around the Arioka castle. On the following day Nobunaga did falconry on the way to Arioka.

Minoh Falls is 11 km northeast of the Arioka Castle which had been besieged by Nobunaga's army since December of the previous year. Unlike his first sojourn to the Settsu Province four months before, Nobunaga did not make direct attack on the castle, instead, he camped at Furuikeda, 6 km north of Arioka, ordering his men to reinforce the redoubts and forts surrounding the Arioka castle. Securing the surrounding areas from the hostile forces' attack, Nobunaga days on end went to nearby valleys to do falconry. The Minoh Falls was on the way to one of the falconry fields.

Siege of Arioka Castle 1579

Minoh Falls

Minoh Falls is in the Northern Settsu mountain range overlooking Osaka Plain. The height is 33 meters. It is on the Mihon River which runs into the Ina River which runs by the Arioka Castle. The Minoh Falls was named after its shape which resembled a mino, a straw raincoat.

Minoh Falls: Left: an illustration from the Topography of Settsu Province, 1798[2], Right: a photo taken in 2012

The early historical record reads that the place was a Buddhists' training ground. In 658 CE. En no Gyoja, a shaman, who conducted a Buddhist training in a cave above the falls, had an enlightenment and founded a temple named Minoh-ji Temple. Later in the 14th century, the temple was renamed as Ryuan-ji Temple, where notable priests, Gyoki, Kukai, Honen, Nichiren, practiced Buddhism. The temple developed so much that it had eighty-odd buildings in its golden age. But fires and wars destroyed the buildings, and in 1603, the temple was moved from the vicinity of the falls to the present site, 1.6 km south of the falls.

The Ryuan-ji Temple was burned during the Nobunaga's war in Settsu province. Though the area was secure enough for Nobunaga to play falconry around, he might see the burnt buildings near the falls. While Nobunaga visited the Minoh Falls, at Arioka, 11 km downstream, the siege was going on. It took another eight months of the siege for the castle to fall to Nobunaga.

References

[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] 摂津名所図会 巻六上 (No.7 p9/47) 箕面瀧 1798

The New Year Party — Gifu, 23 January 1574

The New Year Party
Oil on canvas, 45.5 × 53.0 cm, 2013-2023, M.Tsushima

Among dozens of enemy warlords Nobunaga faced in his lifetime, the three warlords who defied Nobuaga left the story to be told in which they exposed their humiliating defeat in an exceptionally impressive manner.

Background

Nobunaga's grudge against his brother-in-law, Azai Nagamasa, stemmed from his sudden rebellion against Nobunaga in 1570, when Nobunaga was on a military campaign against the northern coastal warlord, Asakura Yoshikage. The rebel made the campaign a complete fiasco. Nobunaga managed to flee from the battleground to Kyoto, guarded only by a dozen guards. Azai Nagamasa, making alliance with Asakura Yoshikage, Takeda Shingen, Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Enryakuji Temple and Honganji Temple, besieged Nobunaga's land. But Enryakuji Temple was defeated by Nobunaga in 1571, Takeda Shingen died in May 1573, Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki lost his Makishima Castle near Kyoto to Nobunaga in August 1573 and lost his power as Shogun.
In Septemer 1573, Nobunaga attacked Azai Nagamasa, who asked Asakura Yoshikage for reinforcement. Asakura's army of 20,000 marched in the northern Ohmi province to help Azai, but Nobunaga's quick maneuver disabled it. Asakura retreated but was caught up by Nobunaga's troops at Tonezaka where Asakura's troops were destroyed. Asakura Yoshikage managed to arrive at his home, Ichijodani castle, but there he was besieged by Nobunaga's army and was forced to commit suicide. Then Nobunaga focused his attack on Azais in Odani Castle in north Omi Province. Azai Nagamasa's father, Hisamasa was forced to commit suicide on 23 September, followed by Nagamasa three days later, on 26 September. The heads of the three warlords, Asakura Yoshikage, Azai Hisamasa and Azai Nagamasa were exhibited in Nobunaga's home Gifu Castle on the New Year's Day of the following year, 1574.

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

On New Year's Day, military commanders in the vicinity of Kyoto came to Gifu and served Nobunaga at the castle. Each of them was called to the ceremony of three offerings of sake.
After the territorial lords left, only the Horse Guards attended the party, when an unprecedented, bizarre sideshow showed up, another drinking party was held.
They were the heads of Asakura Yoshikage, Azai Hisamasa, and Azai Nagamasa, who were killed in the northern land of Japan last year. Each was lacquered, placed on a table, and served as a sideshow for the party.
Everyone enjoyed themselves by singing and merrymaking. It was auspicious. They fully enjoyed it. They were jubilant.

Date and Venue

It was the New Year's Day of 1574 of old Japanese calendar. Ota Guichi's account suggests that New Year's Day ceremony was supposed to be held every year, though not described every year; the oldest recorded New Year's Day event was in 1571, when each vassal came to Nobunaga at Gifu Castle to serve him. Since 1578, after Nobunaga moved from Gifu to Azuchi, every year on the New Year's Day, except 1580 due to heavy snow, and 1581 due to the war in far-off lands, the vassals governing territories habitually came to the castle to greet Nobunaga.

Gifu Castle was Nobunaga's base since 1567 when he took the castle which had been in the town called Inabayama and renamed the town to Gifu which was named after Mount Qi in the ancient China from where King Wen of Zhou (1112-1050 BC) began to rule the empire.

Gifu Castle, 2006

The Gifu Castle was a four-story timber building complex Nobunga built on top of the Mt.Kinka, the height of 329 meters. The castle was demolished in 1600 by the order of Tokugawa Ieyasu. The present castle was rebuilt in the 20th century in reinforced concrete.

The structure in Nobunaga's time was described by Luis Frois[2] who visited Gifu Castle in 1569. According to his account, the top(fourth) floor was a belvedere. The third floor was a graceful, tranquil floor with a tea ceremony room along a corridor. On the second floor were luxuriously decorated rooms for women. Meanwhile, the ground floor had around 20 rooms decorated with gilded byobus, so the ground floor, that could house a lot of visitors by removing fusuma sliding doors to make a large hall, is most likely where the new year ceremony was held.

Nobunaga's enemies, Azai and Asakura clans

The heads shown at the ceremony were of three warlords killed by Nobunaga in the previous year.

Azai Hisamasa(1526-1573) was the second head of Azai clan, who ruled northern Omi Province. In his reign, Azai clan was overwhelmed by the southern Omi Province ruler, Rokkaku clan, and was forced to make matrimonial alliance with it. That was opposed by his vassals, who in 1559 made a coup against Hisamasa to make him retire and made his son, Azai Nagamasa(1545-1573), the third (and last) head of Azai clan. Azai Nagamasa then was still 14 years old, but the next year 1560, he made a war with Rokkaku clan and defeated it. That was the turning point for Azai clan to be independent of Rokkaku clan and establish himself as the ruler of northern Omi Province.

Meanwhile, in the east Nobunaga establish himself as the ruler of Owari Province and expanded his territory to Mino Province. Azai Nagamasa allied with Nobunaga by marring Nobunaga's sister, Ichi. The alliance enabled Nobunaga march his army through the northern Omi Province on the way to Kyoto. In 1568, Nobunaga led the army of 60,000, joined by Azai Nagamasa, marched toward Kyoto. On the way, Nobunaga attacked Rokkaku clan in the southern Omi Province and expelled it. The campaign ended with a success when in Kyoto Nobunaga helped Ashikaga Yoshiaki enthroned as Shogun.

But the issue was his relationship with Azais' ally, Asakura Yoshikage(1533-1573) who ruled northern coastal provinces. Nobunaga had demanded Asakura to come to Kyoto to serve the Shogun, but Asakura did not obey the demand. After the Kyoto Campaign, in May 1570, Nobunaga with his ally Tokugawa Ieyasu, led the army of 30,000 to attack Asakura Yoshikage. At Kanegasaki where Nobunaga took an Asakura's castle, Nobunaga was given a report that Azai Nagamasa rebelled against Nobunaga. Nobunaga saw it as misinformation, but the same reports coming in one after another, he decided to retreat. He was in danger of Azai's attack from behind. He managed to extricate himself from the battlefield and escaped to Kyoto, guarded by an entourage of only around 10 soldiers.

Nobunaga returned to Gifu on 24 June to rebuild the army to attack Azai. Joined by his ally Tokugawa Ieyasu, Nobunaga led the army of 13,000 to Anegawa, 8 km southeast of Azai's home Odani Castle, where he faced Azai's and Asakura's army of 13,000. On 30 July 1570, Battle of Anegawa was fought. It was a hard-fought, bloody, battle. Nobunaga managed to win the battle but lost major generals including his brother, Oda Nobuharu. He could not attack the Azai's home Odani Castle. Azai and Asakura too lost many vassals who had played military role, and they could not rebuild the army to stop Nobunaga's invasion three years later.

In September 1573, Nobunaga's army of 30,000 attacked Azai Nagamasa at Odani Castle. Azai asked Asakura Yoshikage for reinforcement. Asakura's army of 20,000 marched in the northern Ohmi Province to help Azai but Nobunaga's quick maneuver disabled it. Asakura retreated while he was caught up by Nobunaga's troops at Tonezaka where Asakura's troops were destroyed. Asakura Yoshikage managed to escape to his home, Ichijodani Castle, but was besieged by Nobunaga's troops and committed suicide on 16 September. Then Nobunaga returned his army to Northern Omi Province and focused his attack on Azais in Odani Castle. Azai Nagamasa's father, Hisamasa was forced to commit suicide on 23 September, followed by Nagamasa three days later, on 26 September. Thus both Azai and Asakura clans ruined.

From Left, Azai Hisamasa, Azai Nagamasa, Asakura Yoshikage

The heads of the three warlords, Asakura Yoshikage, Azai Hisamasa and Azai Nagamasa were exhibited in Gifu Castle on the New Year's Day of 1574.

Ceremony

The new year ceremony in 1574 began with Nobunaga's vassals coming from the provinces under Nobunaga's rule, including around Kyoto. Each vassal was offered a cup of sake in the traditional formal manner called sankon. It was after the vassals were gone and there were only Horse Guards when the party began with the three sculls brought in.
A head of a killed samurai worrier in a battlefield was put on a small table called kugyo for identification and assessment of military performance. Likewise, in the new year party, the three skulls were put on kugyos.

Exhibition of samurai's head put on a kugyo (Toyotomi Hidetsugu, 1595)[3]

But what is different from an assessment in a battlefield is that in the new year party, the heads had been dead already for four months. Therefore, it must have been difficult to show them as they were alive. So, what was the appropriate way to show the skulls at a party?

Ota Guichi's document reads that the skulls were decorated in hakudami.

So, what is hakudami?

Hakudami is lacquerware coated with gold paint. Lacquerware technique developed in Japan since ancient era was used in the 16th century to decorate utensils, kitchinware, weapons, and Buddhist and Shinto religious goods. But lacquered skulls, as Ota Guichi writes, were unprecedented. So, why did Nobunaga have the skulls lacquered? The northern coastal province, Echizen, which Nobunaga took by ruining Asakura clan, was a production center of lacquerware. The excavation of Ichijodani, Asakura's home, in the 1970s discovered more than 1,500 lacquerwares that were used in Asakura's era.

The umprecedented lacquered skulls, in a sense, symbolized Nobunaga's achievement; his territory had expanded to include northern coastal provinces. It was a milestone in Nobunaga's carrier; it took good three years since the war on Azai and Asakura started. In the new year party, Nobunaga shared the jubilation with his Horse Guards, including Ota Guichi, who had contributed to the achievement.

References

[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] History of Japan, Luis Frois
[3] 瑞泉寺絵縁起

Nichijo in a Rage — Kyoto, 6 May 1569

Nichijo in a Rage
Oil on canvas, 38.0 × 45.5 cm, 2010, M.Tsushima

The Counter Reformation in the 16th century made a significant influence on the religious and political framework of Japan. Nobunaga took advantage of the conflict between the newly introduced Christianity and the traditionally dominant Buddhism. By balancing the two religious powers, he took them under his control, and gained his political and economic power.

Background

Since Francis Xavier arrived at Japan in 1549, Christianity spread in the western Japan, welcomed by warlords who saw it beneficial for them to promote the trade with Portugal and Spain. But the Jesuits' missionary work was hampered by Buddhists who realized that Christianity was threatening Buddhism in Japan which had dominated Japan since the 6th century.
In order to promote the propagation and increase the number of Catholic churches in Japan, Jesuits missionaries sought to propagate in Kyoto.
In 1569, Luis Frois, Jesuit missionary, was granted by Nobunaga permission to propagate Christianity in Kyoto, where Nobunaga was restoring the Shogun's palace and the Imperial Court[1].
But not all Nobunaga's vassals were agreeable with his decision. Nichijo, a Buddhist monk, who was serving Nobunaga to administer the restoration of the Imperial Court, hated Christianity and wished to expel Jesuits from Kyoto. He told Nobunaga that he would like to hear the teachings taught by the Christian. Nobunaga ordered Lorenzo, Jesuit Friar, to preach the doctrine to Nichijo; that was to become the debate between them. Nichijo in the debate got so frustrated that he drew a sword from the scabbard and tried to attack the Jesuit.

Accounts

Luis Frois(1532-1597), Jesuit missionary, writes[1]:

In Nobunaga's room, there are many lords and nobles, and the corridors outside are full of nobles, it was thought to be about 300 people. The priest and Friar Lorenzo were by Nobunaga's side, and Nobunaga talked to them so politely and amiably that each of these favors was such a pain for Nichijo like a spear wound.
He was so filled with hatred that he could not possibly endure the things to defy his demonic desires. But Nichijo used camouflage and fake meekness to said to Nobunaga, "I would like to hear a little bit of the teaching taught by the christian. I would be happy if you ordered him to preach it to me." Nobunaga thought it was a good thing, and he ordered Friar Lorenzo to preach the doctrine to Nichijo.

...

Nichijo (said), "Even in a dream, such a delusion is impossible, and as you say, it should not be possible that there is a life separated from the four elements when it dies. If there is such a thing, why don't you send it out here and show it to me?"
The priest answered and said "I have long wanted to show you that, and I had submitted a lot of evidence (i.e. the way you think you must be able to figure it out yourself), but up until now you had refused to admit them."
At that point, Nichijo became completely enraged, biting his lips, gritting his teeth, trembling his limbs, with a bright red face as if in flames, with his eyes being bloodshot and burning with rage. Having lost all sense of reverence to his lord (Nobunaga), he sprang up like an arrow on a string and when passed by the priest, he cursed him, and grabbed him by the chest with both hands violently as if he was about to be thrown backwards, he rushed into the corner of the room where was a Nobunaga's long sword or were two handfuls of swords, grabbed the sword, and pulled it out of its sheath with great excitement, and said. "Then I will kill your disciple Lorenzo with this sword. Then show me the soul which you say is in a man."
As he began to draw his sword from its scabbard, Nobunaga and many other nobles present quickly stood up, caught him from behind, took the sword out of his hand, and condemned him for his shameless outrage. However, Nobunaga was exceptional, saying, "Nichijo, what you do is evil. What Buddhist monks should do is not to take up a weapon, but to defend the Dharma by giving reasons. However, on the other hand, while Nichijo was making this assault and disturbance, the priest and the friar did not move at all from where they were.

Venue and Date

According to the account of Lois Frois, the debate was held in Nobunaga's room in Kyoto, Though Frois did not write the date, he wrote that on the following day Nobunaga departed for Owari. Meanwhile, Yamashina Tokitsugu, a noble of Kyoto, writes in his diary on April 20th on the old calendar, that Nobunaga would leave Kyoto on the following day[2]. The diary reads that it was rainstorm on April 20th, while Lois Frois's account reads that during the debate it became heavy rain. So the date was certainly April 20th on the old calendar(May 6 on Julius calendar).

Lois Frois neither wrote the certain location of the debate. He wrote that in Nobunaga's room there were many lords and nobles, and the corridors outside were full of nobles, it was thought to be about 300 people. According to Yamashina Tokitsugu's diary, Nobunaga in the evening of April 13th moved to Myokakuji Temple and on 15th was visited by nobles at Myokakuji Temple[2]. So Nobunaga was considered to have stayed at Myokakuji Temple for seven days before 20th when he held the debate probably in his room of Myokakuji Temple.

Myokakuji Temple was on the Muromachi Street which runs to the north to the Nijo Palace which Nobunaga was constructing.

Myokakuji Temple is Nichiren Sect Buddist temple which was burned in the War of Tenmon Hokke in 1536. It was rebuilt in 1548 which was the building in which Nobunaga would stay when he visited Kyoto. At the time of the debate in 1569. in Nobunaga's room, there are many lords and nobles, and the corridors outside are full of nobles, it was thought to be about 300 people. It might be the main hall of the temple which housed so many people.

Myokakuji Temple in the 16th century[3]

Nichijo

Asayama Nichijo（? - 1577）was a Buddhist monk of Tendai Sect. He built a temple in Yamaguchi, under the rule of the powerful warlord, Mori clan.
At around 1554 Nichijo moved to Kyoto, where he won credit of the Emperor Gonara. In 1567 Nichijo supported a powerful samurai warlord, Matsunaga Hidehisa, who opposed Miyoshi Triumvirate in Kyoto. Nichijo attempted to transfer a letter from Mori to Matsunaga, when he was arrested by the Miyoshis and imprisoned at Sakai, where he was forced to spend more than 100 days, put in a pillory, poorly fed, Even so, he was so good at speech that he moved people to donate him[1].
In May 1568 he was released by an imperial edict; he was said to have donated to the imperial court. Five months later, in October 1568, when Nobunaga marched his army to Kyoto to support Ashikaga Yoshiaki to be enthroned to Shogun, Nichijo began to expand his power by mediating between Nobunaga and the Imperial Court. When Nobunaga began the restoration of the Imperial Palace in June 1569, Nichijo played a role as a magistrate.

Nichijo was a key figure also in mediating Nobunga and the Shogun when they broke up in 1573. The Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was expelled by Nobunaga from Kyoto to Mori's land, where Nichijo was sent as Nobunaga's envoy together with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, to negotiate with Mori for peace. Mori's envoy, Ankokuji Ekei, wrote that Nichijo made a great cooperation for all the mediation processes[4].

While Nichijo had a good reputation among nobles and samurais, he had an extremely bad reputation among Christians. Frois describes Nichijo as a Japanese anti-Christ, a deceiver of people, a Lucifer in a body. While Frois wrote that Nichijo was ignorant, had no knowledge about Japanese religion and had no education, he admitted that he was a good orator, writing "as for the talent of speech, he was the Demosthenes of Japan"[1].

Debate

The Jesuits who attended the debate were Luis Frois(1532-1597) and Lorenzo Ryosai(1526-1592).
Lorenzo was a blind minstrel. In 1551, he converted to Christianity, baptized by Francis Xavier in Yamaguchi. In 1563 Lorenzo became a Jesuit and became a friar. Having a great ability of understanding, Lorenzo was well versed both in Buddhism and Christianity. Frois wrote that Lorenzo openly discussed and debated with the most learned Buddhist monks and persons of rank, He has never been refuted by any of them. His preaching converted thousands of people to Christianity.

The debate started with the argument about the object of faith. Lorenzo explained God in the Trinity. Nichijo, who was skeptical of it, asked the Jesuit to show God, but the Jesuit said that God is invisible. Lorenzo emphasized that omnipotent God is not one of four elements, not having a visible shape.

While the Buddhist and the Christian were at loggerheads, Nichijo suggested that God is same as satori of Zen Buddhism, but Lorenzo, who knew both Buddhism and Christianity, denied it by explaining the difference between them. Nichijo was frustrated. He told Nobunaga that the Jesuits were imposters and told him to exile them from Japan. But Nobunaga calmed him down and told him to continue to ask questions.

The debate lasted so long, 1.5 hours, that Lorenzo was too exhausted to continue the debate, so Luis Frois thereafter succeeded his role.
Frois said to Nichijo, "It is no surprise that you are confused, because Japanese religion is based on the principal of nothingness, and Japanese scholars' knowledge and recognition reach nothing more than the visible things comprised in "four elements". So, once they are taught about the invisible, immortal soul, it is no wonder they regard it as strange.", and he began to explain the existence of immortal soul.

That was the moment when Nichijo could not stand any more. Completely enraged, biting his lips, gritting his teeth, trembling his limbs, with a bright red face as if in flames, with his eyes being bloodshot and burning with rage, Nichijo sprang up and rushed into the corner of the room, and grabbed Nobunaga's sword, and pulled it out of its sheath with great excitement, and said. "Then I will kill your disciple Lorenzo with this sword. Then show me the soul which you say is in a man."

As Nichijo began to draw the sword from its scabbard, Nobunaga and many other nobles present quickly stood up, caught him from behind, took the sword out of his hand.

Aftermath

Thus ended the debate. It was definitely Nichijo's loss; in Kyoto a rumor spread "Nichijo, though being a Buddhist monk, upset, enraged in front of Nobunaga, took a sword, thus making a blunder, committing an offense against decency. That was the evidence that he was defeated in the debate."[1]

Though Nichijo lost the debate, Nobunaga did not punish Nichijo; Nichijo was a key figure for Nobunaga to contact with the imperial court, that was instrumental for Nobunaga to gain power in Kyoto.

After the debate, Nichijo's hostility against Christianity did not cease. He tenaciously pleaded Nobunaga to exile Jesuits from Kyoto. But Nobunaga did not prevent Jesuits from propagating in Kyoto.

Unlike the former ruler of Kyoto, Matsunaga Hidehisa, who persecuted Christians, Nobunaga was friendly with Christians. Since his meeting with Luis Frois in Kyoto in 1569, Nobunaga protected Christianity in Kyoto from hostile warlords and Buddhists. His vassal,Takayama Tomoteru, who was Christened in 1563, made a great contribution to build a Christian church, Nanbanji Temple, in Kyoto in 1575.

While some of his vassals converted to Christianity, Nobunaga himself did not convert to Christianity. So, what was Nobunaga's attitude towards Christian teaching?

During the debate, Nobunaga posed a question about the relationship between God and evil people. When he was explained by Lorenso about it, he answered that the explanation is reasonable. But as for the immortality of the soul, he might have similar skepticism as Nichijo; Frois wrote,

Equipped with good understanding and clear judgment, Nobunaga despised all worship, reverence, and admiration of Gods and Buddhas. He despised all pagan divination and superstition. At first, he nominally pretended to belong to the Nichiren sect, but after he took the throne, he became conceited, chose himself over all idols, agreed with some points of Zen sect views, and denied the existence of the immortality of the soul and reward or punishment in the afterlife.

Nobunaga himself did not judge the debate. While showing his curiosity for Christian teaching, he seemed not involved in the argument concerning the discrepancy between the religious teachings. His concern was politics. Kyoto was the center of Buddhism that had been influential on the politics of central Japanese states. Meanwhile, Christianity was getting to play a key role for Japanese warlords to promote overseas trade. What Nobunaga was to do was carefully balancing the powers of Buddhism and Christianity. That led to his protection of religions, which was coming not from his religious identity but genuinely from his own political purpose.

References

[1] 日本史, Luis Frois
[2] 言継卿記 第４ 永禄十二年四月廿日 p168/327, 山科言継
[3] 洛中洛外図屏風 上杉本, 狩野永徳, 1565
[4] 大日本古文書 家わけ第九『吉川家文書之一』一六一〇「安国寺恵瓊自筆書状」（天正元年）十二月十二日

Higisho — Kiyosu, January 1557

Higisho
Oil on canvas, 38.0 × 45.5 cm, 2015-2022, M.Tsushima

Trial by ordeal was a medieval judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused was determined by subjecting them to a painful, dangerous experience. The judgement was held by Nobunaga himself to correct the corruption.

Background

In 1555 Nobunaga moved his headquarter from Nagoya to Kiyosu. From the Kiytosu Castle, Nobunaga would go out for hawking.
One day on his way back from hawking, he called at the Sanno Shrine, where he found that many people were gathering in a trial to judge a servant of Ikeda Tsuneoki, Nobunaga's vassal, for an alleged burglary. The judgement was made by a trial by ordeal called Higisho, with which, a defendant was determined guilty or innocent according to the accomplishment in carrying a red-hot iron in the hands. Though the defendant had failed in a Higisho, Ikeda was so powerful that the judgement was about to be rigged to make the defendant innocent. Nobunaga, hearing that, got angry and himself took a Higisho to correct the judgement.

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

In the village of Oya, Kaito County, Owari Province, there was a headman named Jinbei, who was a retainer of Oda Mikinojo, and in a neighboring village called Isshiki, there was a man named Sasuke. The two men were on good terms.
Sometime in mid-December, when Jinbei of Oya was away to Kiyosu to pay annual tribute, Sasuke of Isshiki Village robbed Jinbei's house at night. His wife woke up, clung to Sasuke, and took up the scabbard of his sword.
The wife complained about this to Kiyosu, and both sides filed a case with the court. Sasuke of Isshiki Village was a retainer of Ikeda Katsusaburo Tsuneoki, the younger foster brother of Lord Nobunaga. Ikeda was in power at the time.It was decided to hold a Higisho trial, and the magistrates lined up in front of the shrine at Sanno Shrine, and both the plaintiff and the defendant were in the presence of witnesses.
There is something contrary to reason here.
The detail is that, Sasuke lost the Higisho, but at that time, Ikeda Katsusaburo's vassals were proud of their power, so they took away the iron of the Higisho as evidence and were planning not to let him be executed.
Just at that time, Nobunaga stopped by on his way home from falconry, saw the commotion, and said, "Why are so many people gathering with bows, spears, and weapons?" Nobunaga, who had listened to both sides about the situation, quickly seeing the detail, changed his complexion and expressed anger, saying, "How much did you burn the iron to take? Bake it as it was and show it." The person baked the iron until it turned red, and said, "This is how I got it."
Nobunaga said, "Keep in mind, if I complete the Higisho, I will execute Sasuke.", took the burned ax head in his hands, and walked three paces, put it on the shelf and said, "Did you see this?" then he executed Sasuke. It was terrifying.

Venue and Date

The trial was held at the Sanno Shrine, a Shinto shrine in Kiyosu, Owari Province. In the shrine area today are three buildings; the Honden (main shrine) at the back, the Saimonden (liturgy hall) in the middle, and the Haiden ( hall of worship) at the front. Besides them are many small shrines. What makes this Sannno Shrine characteristics is a lot of pictures and statues of monkey which was thought to be a messenger of god.

Sanno Shrine in Kiyosu: left:the hall of warship, right:statue of monkey

The Sanno Shrine was found in 771[2]. Halls were built in 807. In the 13th century, the shrine was developed so much that it had an area of 13,000 square meters. However, in 1584, the buildings were burned down in the battle of Nagakute.
After the battle, Nobunaga's son, Oda Nobukatsu restored the Honden. In the early 1600s, Tokugawa Ieyasu's fourth son, Matsudaira Tadakichi, the lord of Kiyosu Castle, made a large scale construction of the Sanno Shrine. The picture of the Sanno Shrine drawn in the late 19th century shows the typical building arrangement of shrines in Owari Province, in which a gate, a Suigai (see-through fence), a Haiden, a Saimonden, and a Honden are placed in a row from south to north.

Sanno Shrine in Kiyosu[2]

Though the buldings at the time of Nobunaga were different from present ones, the arrangement of the buildings was presumably same as that of the picture. The hip-and-gable roof structure is the Haiden, in front of that is a space where the Higisho would be held.

Haiden (Hall of warship) in the Sanno Shrine, Kiyosu[2]

The precise date of the Higisho is unknown. Ota Gyuichi's account writes the burglary took place sometime in mid-December in Japnaese old calendar (mid-January of the following year in Julian calendar), but the account does not write the year.
Nobunaga moved to Kiyosu in 1555 and left in 1565. It is certain, therefore, that the event took place during this period. The plaintiff, Jinbei, was a servant of Oda Mikinojojo Nobufusa who is considered to have died in 1560 in the battle of Okehazama, because his record disappears after that. So the event is likely to have taken place before 1560. In the Ota Guichi's chronicle, the document of the Higisho is followed by events in from 1555 to 1558. All these things considered, 1557 is the most likely. Nobunaga then was 23 years old.

Higisho

Higisho is a kind of ordeal by fire believed as god's judgement conducted in Japan during the medieval and early modern period. A representative, selected from each of the disputing groups, spreads a talisman paper called Gohoin on his palm in front of an official, who places a hot iron on it, Then the representative walks three paces and put it on a shelf. The validity of the claims from their belonging groups was determined according to the degree of their accomplishment. If it did not succeed, the group was considered to be defeated, and the representative was punished for deceiving the god by decapitation.

The way of Higisho is written in detail in the record of Fukushima Masanori(1561-1624), the load of Hiroshima Castle, who conducted a Higisho in 1606 [3]:

There were two men named Fujimatsu Jiuemon and Tsudano Kogenta, Jiuemon was the father-in-law and Kogenta the son-in-law. The two filed a lawsuit against each other. But it was so pompous a lawsuit that no one wanted to judge the case. Lord Tayu (Fukushima Masanori) heard about this and ordered;
"Now then, there's nothing I can say to these disgusting guys. Now, let's get them to take the red-hot iron in front of an altar."
A bamboo shelf was made in front of the altar, and a table was put on it, then an iron was cut into 8 cm long and 2 cm wide, and bellows were set up to heat the iron red-hot.
Both of them put on kamishimo, and the father-in-law Jiuemon first folded a Gohoin of Kumano into three, wrapped the ends of the Gohoin in both hands. And then the red-hot iron was held by a pair of pincers and put in his hands. Jiuemon took three steps and quietly and quickly placed the red-hot iron on the table. The Gohoin burned to dust, and the table also was burned.
Kogenta also picked up a Gohoin in the same way, put the red-hot iron on it, and threw the red-hot iron at the table from a little before.
Then, after putting their hands in a cloth bag and looking at them three days later, Jiuemon's hands were swollen from burns, Kogenta's hands were not burned. As a result, Jiuemon committed seppuku, and Kogenta asked for a leave because it was difficult to serve because the lawsuit ended up with Higisho.
When the load Tayu heard this, he said;
"Since I used Kogenta by my side since he was young, I thought he was somewhat patronizing, but he was a disgusting guy and did a particularly stupid thing. So make Kogenta cut his stomach." and made him commit seppuku.

A Gohoin is a talisman paper, on the flip side of which a pledge to god is written. The one who broke the pledge was believed to be punished to death.

Gohoin (talisman paper)

Gohoins were issued in Kumano, the holy ground of Shinto and Buddhism, or its subordinate shrines across Japan. On the paper are written crow-shaped characters. A crow, in a legend of Kumano, guarded the emperor Jinmu from a bear in the mountain of Kumano and supported him to travel through the mountain pass, arrive at Nara where he unified the country.

Nobunaga's Judgement

The defendant, Sasuke, was a servant of Ikeda Tsuneoki(1536-1584), who was Nobunaga's foster brother and was gaining power at that time. Under Ikeda's protection, Sasuke was about to be judged innocent, though he had failed in a Higisho; he dropped the burned iron. Nobunaga incidentally, on his way home from hawking, called at the Sanno Shrine, where he found the court going on. As he examined the situation, he got furious and was determined to correct the judgement by taking the Higisho himself. Nobunaga said that if he succeeded in the Higisho he would execute Sasuke. Then he took the hot iron which was an ax head, walked three paces, and put it on a shelf. Then Nobunaga executed Sasuke.

The incident must have been so shocking for Ota Guichi who wrote it in the chronicle of Nobunaga five decades later, that, though the descriptions of Nobunaga's early years in the chronicle are scarce, he remembered the incident and wrote it in detail, ending with his comment; "It was terrifying".

Luis Frois, Jesuit missionary to Japan, later wrote that Nobunaga was strict in justice. This Higisho episode is the very evidence of it.

References

[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] 尾張名所図会. 後編巻３　春日井郡 p19/74
[3] 福島太夫殿御事　p146/418

The Prize to Doke Brothers — Mizunami, September 1565

The Prize to Doke Brothers
Oil on canvas, 38.0 × 45.5 cm, 2015-2022, M.Tsushima

Nobunaga in his early years, though betrayed by some of his vassals, managed to win the loyalty of his men, establishing himself as the leader of Oda clan, and unified the Owari Province. Among his soldiers were Doke Brothers who were encouraged by Nobunaga in the most honorable manner.

Background

In 1564 Nobunaga established his rule of Owari Province by expelling his hostile relatives and taking Inuyama Castle. The Inuyama castle was located at the northern end of the Owari Province from where his army marched on the northern adjacent Mino Province ruled by Saito Clan. Meanwhile, the Mino Province was also the interest of Takeda Shingen who ruled its eastern adjacent Shinano Province.
The tension rose to the extent that a skirmish broke out between Oda and Takeda armies around 1565 at Kono-guchi in the eastern Mino Province, where Nobunaga's soldiers, Doke brothers, fought with Takeda's troops and took three enemies' heads as a proof of military success and brought them to Nobunaga. Nobunaga, finding the brothers wearing white banners, wrote on them "the best hero under the heaven".

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

There were brothers, Doke Seijuro, Doke Kojuro, from Owari Province, living in Moriyama. Several years ago, Takeda Shingen invaded Kono-guchi in the east of Mino Province. Then Mori Sanzaemon and Hida Genba took the lead in the battle, the armies fought in the mountains and valleys. The brothers took three enemies' heads and brought them to Nobunaga who exceptionally praised them. The brothers wore a white banner, on which Nobunaga handwrote "The Best Hero under the Heaven". Nothing is more honorable than this, the brothers were the people of honor.

Venue and Date

The inland Mino Province is mostly covered with mountains, where in the east of the province is a ruin of a castle called Kono Castle, aka. Tsuruga Castle in present Mizunami City. According to Ota Guichi's account, the battle with Takeda Shingen's troops was fought at Kono-guchi. Around the castle, therefore, is considered to be the battlefield.

Battle between Oda and Takeda in the eastern Mino Province, September 1565

The precise date is unknown. Ota Guichi's account writes about the event in the chronicle of 1570 where it writes that the event occurred several years ago. Nobunaga made peace alliance with Takeda by marrying his daughter to Takeda Shigen's son, Takeda Katsuyori, that was predated by sending an ambassador, Oda Tadahiro, to Takeda's headquarter in Kofu, on 2 October 1565[2]. Before that, on 22 September 1565, Mori Sanzaemon Yoshinari(1523-1570), who served Nobunaga, attacked Saito's Dohora Castle and captured it, and later in October was deployed at Kaneyama Castle[3]. Mori Yoshinari, while having battle with Saito Clan who was headquartered at Gifu, was at the same time to face Takeda Clan who had deployed his vassals in the eastern Mino Province. The battle of Kono-Guchi, therefore, would be fought in September 1565. Nobunaga then was thirty one years old.

Samurai's Banner

Samurai soldiers wore a banner to effectively show their achievement in the battlefield.

Samurais' banners date back to the 12th century when two major samurai clans, Minamoto and Taira fought for the rule of Japan. Minamotos wore white banners, Tairas red ones.
Since Minamotos defeated Tairas and established the first samurai government, Shogunate, in 1192, a blank white banner represents the legitimate samurai descendant of Minamoto family. The Minamotos banned other samurais to wear a blank white banner. In 1189 Satake Hideyoshi, a samurai from Hitachi Province, joined the army of Minamoto Yoritomo, who found Satake wearing a blank white banner, accused him of doing it, gave him a fan on which was painted a rising moon, and ordered him to put the fan above the blank white banner in order to distinguish it from the legitimate blank white banner of Minamoto Clan[4].

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In the warfare in the 12th century, Minamotos raise white banners, Tairas red.[5]

In the following centuries, a samurai banner was painted with a family crest to distinguish the soldier from enemies, as well to show his distinguished service in the battlefield. But that was not the rule. In the 16th century warfare, some of the banners were painted with Chinese characters, the others were painted with geometric patterns, or a mono-color including blank white which Minamotos already had no authority to limit the use of to their families.

Samurai worriers wearing banners in the 16th century warfare[6]

Doke Brothers and the Banners of honor

Not much is known about Doke Brothers, partly because of their short lives. Doke Brothers' father, Doke Owarinokami, since his early age, served Nobunaga's father, Oda Nobuhide(1510-1551, r.1526 or 1527-1551). So the Doke Brothers might be the same age as Nobunaga or years younger. They were from Moriyama, Owari Province, five kilometers east of Nagoya, where Nobunaga had lived. Doke family, therefore, conceivably deeply connected to Oda family and served them in two generations.

In 1565, Doke Brothers served Nobunaga's military campaign in the eastern Mino Province, where they fought with Takeda Shingen's troops. In the mountain battle, they killed three enemy soldiers and brought their heads to Nobunaga, who found the brothers wearing white banners and wrote letters on them as a prize.

What Nobunaga wrote on their banners were seven characters:天下一之勇士也 (Ten Ka Ichi No Yu Shi Nari), meaning "The Best Hero under the Heaven".
What is noticeable is the first two letters: Ten Ka, that literally translates as "under the heaven" denoting the entire country.

"The Best Hero under The Heaven", Nobunaga wrote on the Doke Brothers' banners

It seems hyperbolic for a warlord who had just one province under his control to say that he had the best hero in the country. But his use of the word "Ten Ka" played significant role, around two years later, in 1567, when he began to use a red seal stamp on letters as a signature, which reads "Ten ka Fu bu", in manifesting his ambition to rule the whole country under samurai's control.

"Ten Ka Fu Bu" red seal stamp, Nobunaga used as a signature

Why did Nobunaga, though a ruler of just 2 provinces out of 68 provinces in Japan, hold such an audacious ambition?

He at that time already had connected to the Imperial Court in Kyoto, thanks to Doke brothers' father, Doke Owarinokami, whose wife's brother was an imperial envoy, Tateri Munetsugu(1528-1622). Tateri, in 1564, visited Kiyosu Castle in Owari Province where he was introduced by Doke Owarinokami to Nobunaga and encouraged Nobunaga to come to Kyoto to restore the Imperial Court which had been dilapidated for 90 years[3].

Nobunaga was hoped not only by the Imperial Court but also by the Shogun family to restore order in Kyoto. The 13th Ashikaga Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshitel, was killed by hostile samurai warlords, Miyoshi Triumvirate, in 1565, and his brother Ashikaga Yoshiaki fled to Omi, where he was about to ask Nobunaga to come to Kyoto to restore the Shogunate.

Nobunaga had to secure the route to Kyoto which traveled across Mino and Omi provinces. Doke brothers who made an honor in the Mino Province, were to work hard also in Omi Province. In the battle against Azai Clan in Omi Province five years later in 1570, while Nobunaga's troops were outnumbered by Azai's troops, Doke brothers were killed in the battle. The best heroes, then, wore the banners of honor[1].

References

[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] 甲陽軍鑑　品第丗三 p128/265
[3] 金山記
[4] 吾妻鏡 第二 文治五年七月二十六日 p105/128
[5] 安徳天皇縁起絵図
[6] 長篠合戦図屏風 18世紀

The Execution of an Immoral Soldier — Kyoto, April 1569

The Execution of an Immoral Soldier
Oil on canvas, 72.7 × 60.6 cm, 2011-2022, M.Tsushima

Nobunaga, as a new ruler in Kyoto, kept his troops in order; the occupation force shall not offend any citizen. Not a petty misdemeanor shall be overlooked. The punishment he gave to an immoral soldier was of utmost severity.

Background

Kyoto was in chaos before Nobunaga marched his army to Kyoto in October 1568. There, he supported Ashikaga Yoshiaki to be enthroned to Shogun to stabilize the government. But just three months later, on 31 January 1569, the hostile warlords, Miyoshi Triumvirate, attacked the Shogun who was besieged in Honkokuji Temple. Though the Shogun managed to defend against the enemy attacks, Nobunaga thought the Honkokuji Temple not strong enough to secure the Shogun.
So, on 12 February 1569, Nobunaga embarked on the construction of a fortified palace for the Shogun[1]. He engaged 25,000 workers[2] from 14 provinces[3] in the construction. Spectators were allowed to see the building, while Nobunaga directed the construction himself.
One day at the construction site, Nobunaga saw a soldier tried playfully to look at a noble lady's face and raised her hat a little. Then in front of the spectators, Nobunaga immediately decapitated him.

Accounts

Luis Frois(1532-1597), a Jesuit missionary, writes[2]:

Since feudal lords and all nobles in Japan gathered to be engaged in the construction, it is said, usually 25,000 men worked, 15,000 at the least. Nobunaga, holding a hand plane in his hand, directed the work.

Nobunaga almost always wrapped his waist with a tiger skin, and dressed in poor clothes. Most of all the nobles and vassals, following his example, wore a leather dress for labor. During the construction work, no one came out in front of him in a beautiful court-style costume.

Those who wished to see the architecture, either men or women, were given the freedom to pass in front of him (Nobunaga) without taking off the sandals.
By the way, when a soldier once tried playfully to look at a noble lady's face and raised her hat a little while doing the construction work, Nobunaga happened to witness it and in front of the audience immediately decapitated him.

Venue

The palace Nobunaga built for Ashikaga Yoshiaki was at Nijo, the second avenue of Kyoto. So, the palace was later called the Old Nijo Castle. It was at the different site from the present Nijo Castle which was built by Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1603. The place Nobunaga chose was adjacent to the today's Kyoto Imperial Palace.

The location of Nijo Castle in Kyoto

It was the place where Ashikaga Yoshiaki's brother, the 13th shogun Ashikaga Yoshitel, had been building a palace five years earlier, in 1564, but before its completion Yoshitel was killed by the attack of Miyoshi Triumvirate.
The new palace should be strongly fortified. The moats were enlarged and stone walls were newly built.

The Nijo Palace Nobunaga built in 1569 was demolished by Nobunaga seven years later, in 1576, after he drove out Ashikaga Yoshiaki who had rebelled against Nobunaga in 1573. The moats were filled. The stones were removed. The timber structures were moved away to Azuchi where Nobunaga was building his new castle. So, there are no remnants of the palace today on the ground. The excavations conducted in 1992, 1993 and 2012 found the evidence of moats that indicates that the area of the palace was around 400 m × 400 m square, that matches the description of Luis Frois[4].

The Construction of the Shogun's Palace

The construction of the Shogun's palace started on 12 February 1569. Nobunaga engaged 25,000 workers from 14 provinces in the construction.

Nobunaga directed the construction himself. In order to shorten the construction time, Nobunaga ordered Buddhist temples in Kyoto to supply materials. Alters, statues of Buddha were destroyed to be used for stone walls. From Honkokuji Temple, where Ashikaga Yoshiaki resided, luxurious rooms, with artworks like gilded folding screens, were dismantled and moved to the Nijo Palace where the rooms were reconstructed[2].

Nobunaga made the construction not a mere work, but a festival. In order to build a rock garden, he collected rocks from nobles' mansions and Buddhist temples. A famous rock called Fujito-Ishi was carried from Hosokawa Akimoto's house. It was covered with twill damask and brocade, decorated with various flowers, pulled by a lot of thick ropes. Three to four thousands men moved the rock while cheered up by a music band[1]. Other famous rocks and trees were collected from in and out of Kyoto. Cherry trees were planted at a horse stable[3].

The construction attracted many people. During Nobunaga's sojourn in Kyoto for three months, a noble Yamashina Tokitsugu visited Nobunaga several times to celebrate the construction. It was also at this time Luis Frois saw Nobunaga for the first time. He writes about Nobunaga:

He was medium-height, slender, with a thin beard and a good voice, extremely fond of war, enthusiastic about military discipline, honorable, and strict in justice.

The Execution of an Immoral Soldier

Thus, thousands of workers from remote provinces and local people in Kyoto gathered together in the construction site. While the workers were all or mostly men, among the local people was a noble woman, who might possibly be there without her husband. Women in Japan in those days seemed liberated, at least in terms of going out. Luis Frois writes about Japanese women of the day[5]:

In Europe, a wife cannot leave the house without her husband's permission. Japanese women have the freedom to go wherever they like without telling their husbands.

A group of women shopping in the town of Kyoto in the 1560s[6]

Noble women while going out wore a hat with strips of cloth hung from the rim, called ichimegasa, in order to veil their face. Among the soldiers deployed at the construction site was a guy who wanted to see her face. He perhaps did not notice Nobunaga who was so humbly dressed that he did not look like a warlord. In the sight of Nobunaga, the soldier raised the noble woman's hat a little. Nobunaga did not forgive him; he deserved exemplary punishment.

There is no account which shows who the noble woman was, how old she was. But that does not matter to Nobunaga, who, according to Frois, was strict in justice. He immediately beheaded the soldier in front of the audience.

References

[1] 言継卿記 第４ 永禄十二年正月二十七日 p157/327, 山科言継
[2] 日本史, Luis Frois
[3] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[4] 『言継卿記』・『信長公記』から見た京都の城, 金沢大学考古学紀要 36 2015, 57-70, 馬瀬 智光
[5] 日欧文化比較, Luis Frois
[6] 洛中洛外図屏風 上杉本, 狩野永徳, 1565

The Prize to Kanematsu Masayoshi — Tonezaka, 10 September 1573

The Prize to Kanematsu Masayoshi
Oil on canvas, 65.2×80.3 cm, 2012-2022, M.Tsushima

Nobunaga, served by innumerable people, must have conducted a reward management to gain and keep the loyalty of his men. He motivated his retainers by giving them lands, money and treasures as rewards, but he showed, in this episode, that the best reward was not necessarily expensive.

Background

In September 1573, Nobunaga made war with Asakura Yoshikage who ruled Echizen Province. Asakura led his army of 20,000 to the northern Omi Province but when he found his forts lost to Nobunaga, Asakura began to retreat. Nobunagas's army soon pursued Asakura's troops and caught up at Tonezaka, where Nobunaga's soldier, Kanematsu Masayoshi, chased an opponent soldier in the mountain, and killed him, and brought the enemy's head back to Nobunaga. He was barefoot then, and his feet were bleeding red. Nobunaga prized him with a pair of sandals that Nobunaga ordinary carried on his waist.

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

Incidentally, Nobunaga ordinary carried on his waist a pair of ashinaka sandals. This time in the Tone Mountain, Kanematsu Matashiro chased a mounted samurai soldier in the mountain, and eventually killed him, and brought the enemy's head back to Nobunaga. At that time, Kanematsu was barefoot, and his feet were bleeding red. Nobunaga seeing him said "these will be useful" and gave to Kanematsu the ashinaka sandals that Nobunaga ordinarily carried on his waist. It was the ultimate bliss, it was the honor.

Kanematsu Masayoshi

Kanematsu Masayoshi was a low rank samurai in Owari Province, but his contributions to Nobunaga's victories in the wars to unify Owari Province promoted him to Nobunaga's mounted guard.

In 1573, Kanematsu served Nobunaga's campaign against Azai and Asakura clans. At the battle of Tonezaka, Kanematsu, 31 years old, chased an enemy samurai soldier, Nakamura Shinbei, in the mountain, and killed him, and brought the enemy's head back to Nobunaga. (Samurai warriors took enemies' chopped heads for an assessment of military performance.) He, then barefoot, was given by Nobunaga a pair of sandals called ashinaka.

Portrait of Kanematsu Masayoshi (1542-1627). The sandals hung from the sword were given by Nobunaga.

Ashinaka sandal

So what is an ashinaka sandal?

In the 16th century, Japanese did not wear shoes but sandals. Samurais and soldiers wore even peculiar sandals called ashinaka. Luis Frois, Jesuit missionary to Japan, wrote about it[2]:

In Europe, you would be laughed at if you wore sandals that cover only half of the feet. In Japan, it is a fine thing. The complete ones are of bonzes, ladies and elders.
We walk on the whole foot. Japanese walk on the forefoot wearing half-foot wears.

Ashinaka, meaning a half foot, is a sandal that covers only forefoot.

So why did Japanese soldiers wore ashinaka sandals?

Ashinaka sandal spread in the 13th century when samurais raised their social rank.

Ashinaka sandals worn by a samurai fighting against Mongol invasion in 1293[3]

The lightweight sandal is simply good for running. In addition, the ashinaka sandal, unlike a complete sandal, did not throw in it pebbles or sand that would offend the soldiers before fighting enemies. It was also durable, hard to tear, so it was popular among samurai soldiers who would serve long-lasting wars.

In the 16th century, not only soldiers but also even warlords wore ashinaka sandals. It already symbolized samurai status, though there was little or no development in its shape or materials. At the battle of Tonezaka in 1573, Nobunaga as well had ashinaka sandals that had nothing special; they were cheap ashinaka sandals made of straw.

The Prize

The enemy Kanematsu Masayoshi killed proved to be an Asakura's retainer, mounted samurai soldier, so, he would expect a large reward. However, what made Kanematsu famous was not a reward of vast land or much money, but a pair of cheap sandals given by Nobunaga.

Nobunaga at that time had sandals on his waist. So why did he that?

Nobunaga, from his youth, ordinarily carried on his waist things like flintlock bags, several gourd bottles[1], that an ordinary landlord did not carry by himself. Nobunaga was a man of pragmatism; he carried useful things, even people thought it peculiar. So, during the war he carried ashinaka sandals probably for his own use as a backup, not for giving his men as prizes.

Nobunaga gave Kanematsu his ashinaka sandals with saying that they would be useful. Kanematsu then was barefoot; he had worked in the mountain so hard that he had lost his own sandals. It would be hard for him to continue the battle barefoot. Did Kanematsu wear the given sandals in the ongoing war? We don't know. But what is certain is that, for Kanematsu, they were more than practical use. The receiving the sandals, as a Nobunaga's retainer Ota Gyuichi writes, was the honor.

The sandals of honor were passed down in Kanematsu family for generations. Today in the 21st century, they are housed in the Nagoya City Hideyoshi Kiyomasa Memorial Museum.

Ashinaka sandals Kanematsu was given from Nobunaga (Nagoya City Hideyoshi Kiyomasa Memorial Museum)

References

[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] 日欧文化比較, Luis Frois
[3] 蒙古襲来合戦絵巻 (1) p20/45

The Crossroads — Yogo, 9 September 1573

The Crossroads
Oil on canvas, 60.6×72.7 cm, 2012-2022, M.Tsushima

The battle of Tonezaka in 1573 was one of the iconic moments when Nobunaga showed his military acumen. He made sensible decisions one after another so quickly that not only his enemies were completely overwhelmed, but even his generals could not follow his orders.

Background

In 1573 Nobunaga launched military campaign against Azai Nagamasa who ruled northern Omi province. Nobunaga's army of 30,000 besieged the Azai's Odani castle defended by 5,000 men. In order to resque Azai, his ally, Asakura Yoshikage of Echizen Province, led his army of 20,000 to Yogo, 15 km north of Odani. But when he heard that forts around the Odani Castle fell to Nobunaga's troops, Asakura began to retreat. Nobunagas's main army headed to Yogo in pursuit of Asakura, where they found that Asakura's army was divided in two - one fleeing northwards to Nakanokawachi, the other westwards to Hikita.

Accounts

Ota Gyuichi(1527-1613), samurai who served Nobunaga, writes[1]:

As expected, the soldiers attacked the fleeing Asakura troops, killed them, and brought back their heads one after another. Nobunaga, then mounted, went ahead of the army where his generals discussed; "The enemy divided to retreat, taking two routes: Nakanokawachi route and Tone route. Which way should we take?" While their arguments were diverse, Nobunaga decided, "They must retreat toward their allies' castles at Hikita and Tsuruga, so, march the troops on the Hikita route".

Nobunaga's Maneuver

Nobunaga's Campaign against Azai clan began with the siege of Azai's Odani Castle. On 6 September 1573, Nobunaga's troops entered the Yamadayama Fort, 3 km north of Odani Castle, and cut the communication between the Odani Castle and its ally Asakura's troops of 20,000 from Echizen that were stationed at Yogo, Kinomoto and Tabeyama.

Battle against Azai and Asakura clans in northern Omi Province, 6 to 9 September 1573

Stormy night on 8 September, Nobunaga led his mounted guards to attack Ozuku Fort, 800 m north of the Odani Castle and captured it. The fort had been garrisoned by Asakura's three generals and around 500 men, whom Nobunaga allowed to flee to Asakura's headquarter. Then Nobunaga quickly moved westwards to attack Yono Fort and captured it. The fort too was garrisoned by Asakura's soldiers, whom Nobunaga again allowed to flee to Asakura's headquarter.

At that moment Nobunaga was sure that Asakura would begin to retreat. He changed his target from Azai to Asakura. On 9 September, Nobunaga ordered his generals to make an advance at night to chase the Asakura's troops, while he himself attacked one of Asakura's camps. Nobunaga repeatedly placed the order to the generals not to allow the enemy to escape, but they did not make a satisafctory advance and were even overtaken by Nobunaga. Nobunaga, on the way northwards, having his delayed generals catch up, blamed them for their slow movement that allowed Asakura's troops escape Yogo.

The Crossroads

At the crossroads, Asakura army had been divided in two - one fleeing northwards to Nakanokawachi, the other westwards to Hikita. Nobunaga's generals, arriving at the crossroads, discussed which route to take to chase the enemy, but they did not come to a unanimous decision.

The Nakanokawach Route provides direct access to Asakura's home province, Echizen, but it was a long mountainous road. The Hikita Route, on the other hand, goes into Wakasa Province, but there at Hikita and Tsuruga, Asakura would found his allies' castles.

Then Nobunaga ordered the generals to take the Hikita route. His vision was clear; Asakura would evacuate to the allies' castles at Hikita and Tsuruga, and that was just what Asakura planned. Asakura's troops divieded to flee to Nakanokawachi were just of common soldiers, while Asakura with his high rank generals marched to Hikita.

The Crossroads where Nobunaga decided to go left, towards Hikita[2]

The Nobunaga's decision was crucial in the forthcoming Asakura's catastrophe: Just a few kilometers from the crossroads was Tonezaka, the battlefield where Asakura's troops were caught up by Nobunaga's force and were destroyed.

The passage to Tonezaka, the route Nobunaga decided to take

References
[1] 信長公記, 太田牛一
[2] 神懸りな朝倉追撃戦 （柳ヶ瀬～刀根）